Use of social media often becomes compulsive, consuming significant amounts of time and disrupting many daily activities. This condition is referred to as problematic use of social media or social media addiction. It is not an all-or-nothing condition: some individuals can be severely affected by it, while others are only moderately or mildly so. Paradoxically, people more addicted to social media are more likely to feel lonely. Loneliness is a problem, not only because of the intrinsic suffering it entails, but also because it is a risk factor for mental disorders, physical diseases, and early mortality. It is therefore important to gain knowledge of the relationship between social media usage and loneliness.

A common interpretation is that lonely people engage more frequently in online social networks in an attempt to compensate for their lack of social ties. Another potential explanation is that, in doing so, individuals fail to form social bonds because online social relationships tend to be more superficial. In addition, some studies raise the intriguing possibility that social media addiction can cause loneliness, even among people with frequent in-person social contacts and good social support. This prompted us to investigate further what causes loneliness when the use of social media becomes addictive. One possible explanation is that social media often elicit negative emotional states, but this has not been tested. Therefore, the present study examines whether people who are more addicted to social media feel lonelier because of the negative feelings triggered by social media, namely disappointment, aggressiveness, and negative social comparisons (which may lead to envy and shame), and whether this occurs regardless of the quality of their relationships with significant others.

For this purpose, we used a sample of 5,000 Portuguese participants (including 4,782 users of social media) who responded to an online survey. Recruitment was made using quota sampling considering sex, age, and area of residence (making sure that the sociodemographic characteristics of the sample are similar to those of the population in the study).

Loneliness seems to be common in Portugal. We measured the frequency of loneliness with the UCLA Loneliness Scale. Examples of some items are: “People are around me, but not with me”, “I feel isolated from others”, and “No one really knows me well”. We calculated the mean total score, which ranges from 1 (Never feel lonely) to 4 (Feel lonely very often). As shown in the following graphs, the average score was 2.71, which is quite high, and 80% of the participants had scores above the middle point of the scale (2.5), suggesting that loneliness is a common experience for most of the population. On average, those involved in a romantic relationship reported feeling slightly less lonely than those not involved in one.

The frequent experience of loneliness contrasts with the relatively high satisfaction with personal relationships. On average, satisfaction with friends and family does not seem to contribute much to mitigating loneliness. Satisfying romantic relationships seem to be more important, yet only relatively so. Being satisfied with all types of personal relationships seems to have little effect in protecting from loneliness. The following graphs show the average satisfaction of the respondents with friends, family, and partner. On average, they reported being quite satisfied with their personal relationships. 

Users of social media tended to feel lonelier than non-users, regardless of how satisfied they were with their personal relationships. The difference in the degree of loneliness is small, but still significant, as users of social media potentially have a greater network of contacts.

In order to assess what social media addiction symptoms consist of, we used the Internet Addiction Test. However, we adapted it specifically to our area of concern to be able to detect interference in activities and responsibilities, lack of control of the time spent on social media, and the use of social media as a way to improve one’s mood. Varying from 1 to 5, the average score was 1.92, meaning that, on average, the addiction symptoms were mild. Nonetheless, even mild symptoms may potentially have an impact on mood and social life.

Scores above 3, which were reported by 7% of the sample, suggest a substantial degree of disruption. In general, the younger the participants, the more likely they are to report more severe symptoms. The percentage of participants with substantial social media addiction symptoms was greater (14%) in the younger age bracket (19-29 years). As for the rest of age brackets, it was lower: 7% (30-39); 6% (40-49); 4% (50-59), and 4% (60-69). As expected, people tend to feel lonelier as their social media addiction worsens.

Figure 3 below reflects, on the one hand, the mean social media addiction scores for all users and, on the other hand, the average social media addiction scores according to different age brackets, using a scale from 1 (Absolutely no addiction) to 5 (Maximum addiction). Figure 4 shows the degree of loneliness as social media addiction worsens, while figure 5 indicates the most frequently used social media sites.

Social media sometimes elicit negative emotional states. In this regard, we assessed: a) disappointment over lack of attention from others; b) aggressive interactions; and c) negative social comparisons (perceiving others as happier or more successful). Frequency of negative feelings ranged on a scale from 1 (Absolutely nothing) to 7 (Extremely). Most respondents reported some degree of negative feelings triggered by social media, which on average were mild. Those with more frequent negative feelings were more likely to feel lonely and to have more severe social media addiction. Furthermore, as is observed in the following graphs, individuals who are more addicted to social media are more likely to experience negative feelings triggered by the social media they use. 

As shown in the figure below, although communication with strangers (including superficial acquaintances) is a common practice, lack of familiarity with social media contacts does not seem to be a major factor causing loneliness. 

One reason why people with higher social media addiction feel lonelier is that they lack satisfying relationships with partners and, to a lesser extent, with family. Satisfaction with friends, the degree of familiarity with contacts on social media, and being in a romantic relationship were not identified as possible reasons. However, as expected, lack of satisfying personal relationships cannot account for the entire explanation. As shown in the figure below, we confirmed that disappointment over lack of attention from others on social media (and, to a lesser extent, negative social comparisons) are among the factors explaining why people more addicted to social media are more likely to feel lonely. This occurs regardless of how satisfying personal relationships are, and of being in a romantic relationship or not. 

Our findings may seem puzzling: why do individuals feel lonely when they have good relationships with partners, family, and friends (the most significant persons)? The answer may lie in our evolutionary past. Humans are a social species that seemingly evolved in small units of individuals who knew each other well. Union between the members was essential for survival, and feelings of loneliness likely evolved as a response to a lack of social connection, as that meant that survival was at risk. However, connection between members of such small groups was not enough; from early times, survival likelihood was increased by establishing progressively larger networks of social connections with other groups, to a point that it became difficult to have close relationships with all members. As a result, if the connection with the larger group is not felt, feelings of loneliness ensue, regardless of the existence of good personal relationships.

It is likely that the confidence in the connection with a large group of individuals is prompted by social gatherings, such as music festivals, nightclubs, and sports matches, among other public events. In this context, social media seem very promising as a way of gathering a large number of people without actually having to go anywhere. However, if one depends on social media to satisfy desires for social connection with wider groups, and online interactions bring disappointment, loneliness ensues, even when relationships with the most significant people in our lives are deeply satisfying. 

All of this draws attention to possible interventions to reduce loneliness; for example, by monitoring feelings of social frustration, and reducing or stopping the online activities that are causing them. In fact, previous research suggests that reducing use of social media is particularly beneficial for people with envy triggered by what others post. Yet, it is unlikely that this type of intervention is effective unless other social activities are pursued. As such, encouragement of social activities, especially offline, seems important. Interestingly enough, recent research suggests that moments of positive solitude (being alone and feeling well) might also counteract loneliness, as a lack of such moments appears to be related to loneliness, regardless of satisfaction with personal relationships.

The findings of our research confirm that those more addicted to social media are more likely to feel lonely, and this is not entirely explained by a lack of satisfying personal relationships. Some actions to reduce loneliness might be targeted at reducing disappointment and negative social comparisons triggered by social media.

Future studies are needed to find out other reasons why loneliness is related to social media. Some of these other reasons probably involve some form of lack of in-person interactions. It is arguable that even if online relationships were completely devoid of negative interactions, they might never fulfil completely the need for social connection. As noted above, our brains seem hardwired to associate social connection with survival, and this implies that others in the group need to be physically present. If our brains do not detect physical presence, the ancestral alarm of loneliness will go on ringing, even if comforting and pleasant messages are being exchanged through our screens. This topic will be explored in future research.

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